Colour Does Matter!
An Investigation of Colour in Sport
Amanda Allegos and Helen Allegos (RMIT University)
Aim
The purpose of conducting an investigation of colours
in sport was to determine how sporting organisations,
both locally and internationally select their club
colours and what psychological impact these colours can
have on supporters. A primary objective of the research
is to assist teams in determining what the best colour
combination would be for their club in order to
manufacture the desired result from their supporters.
Little information exists with regards to the meaning of
certain colours and the psychological impact they may
have on the individual within the sporting context. By
investigating the meaning of colours, in conjunction
with how they are selected and used in sport, it is
proposed that sporting managers can determine whether
their colours are reflective of the culture and desired
image of the team.
Introduction
"Knowledge is power, in colour as elsewhere." (Pavey,
1980, p.138)
Few recognise the ability of colour to impact on our
emotions, possessing the power to stimulate or to
tranquillise, to excite or depress, or to provoke and
antagonise (Pavey, 1980, p.132; Fontana, 1993, p.66).
Given that colour has an effect on the emotional
wellbeing of an individual (Pavey, 1980, p.155),
psychologists believe that careful selection and
management of colour can improve the response or help to
achieve the desired objective.
In today’s competitive business environment
organisations are seeking any advantage that will see
them secure their position within the market, this is
particularly relevant in sport. Moving towards the new
millennium sporting teams are faced with a changing
environment where they are likely to experience periods
of success followed by times of uncertainties where
mergers and relocation are a common reality. The key to
survival rests with the ability to generate revenue and
to ensure that the current supporter base remain loyal
while at the same time developing strategies to lure
potential supporters.
The overall appearance of a team is crucial with
their colours representing the ultimate symbol of their
culture. Those teams that were established in the 1800’s
are fortunate enough to rely on a long line of tradition
to maintain and attract supporters. However, new teams
lack player history and past success, and must rely in
part on their visual attractiveness to lure potential
supporters. This is particularly relevant when the sport
is played internationally as the ability to extend you
supporter base is not restricted to your home country.
No rules exist for developing team colours.
Australian teams often look to American sport as
inspiration, while other sporting organisations rely on
the culture of their home state to dictate their
colours. Whether to choose one of these methods or
another process, the objective remains the same -
generate revenue for their team.
The symbolic significance of a teams colours may be
very different from the psychological effect (Fabri,
1967, p.65). Teams should consider the meaning of their
colours in conjunction with what they would like them to
represent in order to maximise impact on the human
psyche. For example, a colour that may be visually
appealing may in fact provoke a tranquil emotion over
the individual. In addition, colours vary according to
surroundings, especially colours next to each other
(Fabri, 1967, p.66). Therefore, consideration to the
overall effect as opposed to a single factor can only be
an investment.
Colour Throughout History.
The selection of colours for symbolic reasons dates
back to a period of time before Christ. One of the
earliest uses of colour was in the ‘Ziggurat’ of Ur,
built between 2300BC and 2180BC in the Tigris Euphrates
Valley. This monument employed the use of colour to
illustrate four main stories. The first story was black
symbolising the underworld, the second was red
representing earth, the third story was a blue shrine
that symbolized heaven and the fourth story was yellow
symbolizing the sun (Fabri, 1967, p.62). As evident by
the use of these colours elsewhere during this period,
colours were derived from associations with in the
natural world.
Han emperors (206BC- AD200) selected the colour of
their ritual robes according to aspects of nature to
which their prayers were addressed (Fontana, 1993,
p.52). For example, the emperors wore white when
petitioning the moon and red when appealing to the sun.
This knowledge has evolved to a position whereby it is
recognised that colours are not used purely for symbolic
purposes, however, they can influence the psyche
directly and profoundly. This is evident with the use of
colour in modern psychiatry to treat mental disorders
(Fontana, 1993, p52). Colours are unlikely to have one
rigid meaning, they may possess a number of connotations
or implied meanings that may be considered consciously
or unconsciously (Fabri, 1967, p.63). Acknowledging the
numerous meanings of colours is particularly relevant in
sport where evoking emotion from players and supporters
is vital.
The Meaning of Colour
Colours have various meanings for different cultures.
To some, a colour may represent a direct association
with the underworld, to others, the same colour can
symbolise spiritual enlightenment. By analysing how
colours have evolved throughout history, we can begin to
determine whether certain colours can be more
appropriately utilised in sport than others.
Red.
"Red is the colour of magic in every country, and has
been so since the earliest of times." (Pavy, 1980,
p186).
During the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, red
was considered the English equivalent for gold and
therefore became the colour for aristocracy. (Pavy,
1980, p.186). When Henry the 2nd declared Fox hunting a
royal sport, red was the colour which represented the
social standing of those who participated. The
association of red with the greatest respect and aura of
grandeur was also adopted in theatrical circles where
the standard phrase became "roll out the red carpet".
However those that choose to utilise the colour red,
should take note that it is not always associated with
aristocracy, it can signify many different meanings for
different cultures.
Classical American Indians identified red with
ambition, heroism and the striving for power (Crozier,
1994, p.150). Hence the colour red has become synonymous
with sporting organisations that adopt the American
Indian symbolism. For example, the Cleveland Indians,
Washington Redskins and the Atlanta Braves all feature
red as a primary colour.
Red is also synonymous with the Asian culture who
utilise this colour significantly within their sporting
leagues. The ultimate reason for this is its association
with good luck and prosperity (Fontana, 1993, p.66). It
is common practice to present individuals with a gold
coin in a red envelope on Chinese New Year to signify
luck and well being. In Hebrew tradition the first man
was named Adam, which means red and alive. (Brusatin,
1991, p.23) This correlates with the Slavic culture
where the colour red denotes living (Brusatin, 1991,
p.23). The positive connotations continue with the
Persian and Turkish people using red to symbolise joy
and happiness as a principle colour in their carpets
(Pavey, 1980, p.186).
Although all of these cultures associate red with
birth, life, joy and good living, westerners have
developed their beliefs based on American Indian ideals.
Their primary association with red is blood, rage,
passion and courage (Healey, 1982, p.48; Brusatin, 1991,
p.121; Pavey, 1980, p.186).
Research indicates that exposure to large quantities
of red prompts the release of adrenaline into the
bloodstream, quickens the heart rate and engenders a
sense of excitement. (Healey, 1982, p.48; Crozier, 1994,
p.150; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101). It is recognised as the
colour of masculinity and activity, and imposes on those
that are bold enough to wear it, suggestive confidence.
These emotions are absorbed by supporters of successful
teams who use red as their primary colour, displaying
the characteristics and emotions that this colour
induces. For example the Liverpool football team
supporters, whose club colours are red and white, are
synonymous with being one of the most vocal, passionate
and courageous followers in the English Premier League.
The connotations of courage and passion all stem from
the idea that red is the colour of war. (Fontana,1993,
p.66). The blood coloured banners quite often seen in
the hands of Liverpool supporters, symbolise a warning
that upheaval and strife will result from all opposition
to their plans of victory (Pavey, 1980, p.192).
Pink
A variation on red is pink. The Chinese see pink as a
symbol of approaching success, due to its association
with the colour of sunrise (Fontana, 1993, p.52).
However, this in Western society signifies gentle,
blissful and extreme pleasure-giving emotions (Healey,
1982, p.48), all of which are traditionally feminine
qualities. Therefore, no sporting team, female or male,
have employed this colour as it would likely result in a
reduced male supporter base due to the impression that
the team and it’s supporters, are "soft."
Orange
"Orange has always suffered something of an identity
crisis. It has spent history playing second fiddle to
red and occasionally gold." (Pavey, 1980, p.194).
The word orange, was not used frequently until the
tenth or eleventh centuries and was often associated
with fruit. It was not until the seventeenth century
that orange was able to establish its self from such
associations (Pavey, 1980, p.194). Today, orange
signifies hope, vitality, energy and cheer (Pavey, 1980,
p.194; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101).
Although arguably it is a stimulating colour, very
few sporting teams use it. This may be attributed to the
fact that orange was traditionally the colour assigned
to those of an inferior position (Pavey, 1980, p.194).
Therefore orange is best used as a secondary colour, as
it is effective when combined with other colours to
attract attention and exhibit a force of life (Brusatin,
1991, p.21). However, if used as a primary colour it
becomes extroverted and thus overbearing.
Brown
Brown, a darkened orange has appealing associations
with food, like coffee and chocolate. However, others
associate it with melancholy, gloom and dull emotions
(Pavey, 1980, p.194). Brown is more appealing to adults
than children, who psychologically link it with comfort
and security while children associate brown with sadness
(Pavey, 1980, p.194).
Yellow
"Yellow’s ease of perception has made it a favourite
amongst advertisers and packagers." (Pavey, 1980,
p.200).
During the tenth century, the Sung Dynasty reserved
the colour yellow exclusively for the Emperor as an
Imperial colour (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Fontana, 1993,
p.67), while Buddhist monks wore yellow as a colour of
humility (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Fontana, 1993, p.67).
Although yellow represented many positive aspects of
the human character, in ancient times it is one of the
only colours that induces directly contrasting emotions.
Artists in medieval times portrayed Judas Iscariot in
yellow to illustrate his deceit and betrayal of Jesus.
(Pavey, 1980, p.200; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101). While a
yellow flag on a ship during this period signified
contagious disease. Many hospitals ensure that rooms are
not painted yellow, as patients claim that it makes them
feel ill (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Fabri, 1967, p.63).
A common connotation of yellow, is betrayal and
faithlessness (Fontana, 1993, p.67). This was
illustrated when the Nazi’s made all Jews wear yellow
armbands as a reflection of their inferiority.
In the western world, true yellow is psychologically
the happiest colour (Healey, 1982, p.46), as it
possesses the highest visibility and therefore radiates
warmth, inspiration and happiness. (Pavey, 1980, p.200;
Bustanoby, 1947, p.101; Crozier, 1994, p.150). Many
people consider yellow a colour of wisdom, representing
intellect. This is due to its association with the sun
which many ancient cultures worshipped as a ruler.
(Fabri, 1967, p.63; Pavey, 1980, p.200). Research
indicates that the eye is most sensitive to yellow light
and for this reason, it can be difficult to handle.
(Healey, 1982, p.46). However, due to it’s high
visibility, many sports teams utilise this colour, such
as the Jordan Formula 1. Racing Team, where visibility
is a crucial factor to safety and attention.
Although yellow can represent cowardice its high
visibility outweighs negative associations and it
becomes extremely flexible when combined with other
colours. For example purple and yellow representing the
LA Lakers (NBA), black and yellow of the Richmond Tigers
(AFL), and yellow and blue of the St. Louis Rams (NFL).
Gold
Gold is closely related to yellow, as they both
represent the sun. Ancient Greeks believed that it was a
symbol of reason and immortality as illustrated when
Jason found the golden fleece (Fontana, 1993, p.66). "It
was the colour of divinity, of martyrs, of priesthood,
of the royal majesty of Christ." (Pavey, 1980, p.204).
Hindu’s used gold as a symbol of truth and even today it
is associated with sacred and divine principles
(Fontana, p.66; Pavey, 1980, p.200). For many sporting
teams, gold is difficult to reproduce on their apparel
and therefore, many sides opt for a deep yellow to
represent the quality, luxury and attractiveness that
gold signifies.
Green
Green puts things into perspective: ... "it was here
before man, and it is ever ready to reclaim it’s own."
(Pavey, 1980, p.206). It is the colours of spring and
the renewal of life. (Fabri, 1967, p.63; Fontana, 1993,
p.67; Pavey, 1980, p.206).
Green was worn by outlaw Robin Hood and was admired
for its ability to camouflage man with nature (Pavey,
1980, p.206). It was an ancient observation that
"emerald delights the eye without fatiguing it and it
was later discovered that green light focuses almost
exactly on the retina." (Healey, 1982, p.44). Therefore,
green brings on a tranquil and soothing state of mind
that refreshes, relaxes and heals. (Bustanoby, 1947,
p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.206). Hence the term "The Green
Room" which calms guests prior to a performance in
theatre and television studios. This term has also been
adopted in the sport of surfing to denote a state of
ultimate tranquility and release from the limitations
of existence for the soul.
Psychologically green is a cool and fresh colour that
helps to overcome discomforts of high temperatures
(Bustanoby, 1947, p.102). However, green can also
represent poison, envy, and jealously (Bustanoby, 1947,
p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.206; Fontana, 1993, p.67; Fabri,
1967, p.63). Many countries currencies are coloured
green to represent security and stability. However,
ironically both money and green promote envy and
jealousy.
Children’s appetite for the colour green is due to
its associations with slime, creepiness and green men in
spaceships (Pavey, 1980, p.206). Teams such as the
Canberra Raiders (NRL), Boston Celtics (NBA), and Green
Bay Packers (NFL) use green as a primary colour in their
uniforms. It can be argued that green is an attractive
colour to use within sports, as few teams use it as
their primary colour, and when employed successfully it
reaps attention.
Blue
"That which exists best in the world... the colour of
all colours, the bluest of all blues." - Picasso (Pavey,
1980, p.212).
Blue has a historic and symbolic association with
royalty. Yet it remains the peoples colour (Pavey, 1980,
p.212), and for this reason its popularity in sports is
widespread. Ancient Parisians entrusted blue to ward off
the evil eye. Greeks and Romans used blue to represent
their respective gods, Zeus and Jupiter. (Pavey, 1980,
p.212). Perhaps one of the most significant aspects of
this colour is its spiritual connection; it is a symbol
of truth, peace, faith and compassion, (Fontana, 1993,
p.66; Crozier, 1994, p.150; Bustanoby, 1947, p.102;
Pavey, 1980, p.170-186).
The colour of Royal Blue promotes a sense of
stability and hence the name "blue chip," meaning a safe
investment. (Pavey, 1980, p.172-212). Due to its
connections with royalty blue perpetuates the ideal of
"the best" which was symbolised by the term "blue
ribbon" since 1348. (Pavey, 1980, p.212). Blue is
synonymous with manual industrial workers, who’s hard
work and commitment coined the phrase "blue collar
workers."
Although it is a pleasant and soothing colour, it can
also be cold and depressing (Bustonoby, 1947, p.101,
Pavey, 1980, p.212). The Chinese use the image of a blue
faced individual in their paintings, to convey a fierce
mood. (Pavey, 1980, p.212). While the Greeks believed
deep blue was an indication of death (Brusatin, 1991,
p.270). Blue agrees so well with other colours that it
functions as one of the most flexible of all primary
colours, yet it retains it’s own identity with ease
(Healey, 1982, p.42).
Many sporting teams that utilise blue as their main
colour, are considered traditionalist and often convey
the belief that they are royalty with in their sport.
Carlton Football Club (AFL), Williams Formula 1 Racing
Team and the Dallas Cowboys (NFL) all project an image
of stability, success and leadership within their sport.
Purple
"When opposites attract, their union may be anything
from subtle to stormy. The red and blue of which violet
and purple are composed are physically, emotionally and
symbolically poles apart." (Pavey, 1980, p.218).
Purple evokes a heavenly image of incomparable
richness and was historically more precious than silver.
(Pavey, 1980, p.218). Due to the great expense occurred
in manufacturing purple, it was quite often reserved for
royalty alone and became the Imperial colour of Rome
(Bustanoby, 1947, p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.118; Fabri,
1967, p.63). It’s representation of royalty in Roman
times, has lead to its modern day portrayal of
uncontrollable power of rank and authority. "It was not
exclusively the colour of power but also the colour of
power corrupted." (Pavey, 1980, p.218). Sacrifice and
penance were common associations with the colour purple
in ancient times (Pavey, 1980, p.218; Bustanoby, 1947,
p.102).
In today’s sporting environment, purple is prevalent
and represents a newly found popularity. Not only is it
recognised as a fashionable colour, but also it denotes
the power of the team’s spirit. Sydney Kings (NBL), LA
Lakers (NBA), Melbourne Storm (NRL), Utah Jazz (NBA),
Minnesota Vikings (NFL), Fiorentina (Italian Soccer) and
the Fremantle Dockers (AFL) are just some clubs who
share an association with the colour purple.
Black
"What better symbol could there be for bravado in the
face of death than a 200 mph black racing car." (Pavey,
1980, p.171).
Black is a symbol of death, sorrow and the underworld
(Fontana, 1993, p.67; Crozier, 1994, p.153, Fabri, 1967,
p.63). Such an association with death and evil has lead
many Africans to only wear bright colours. (Pavey, 1980,
p.178). However, other cultures, such as the Egyptians
believe black is the colour of rebirth and resurrection
(Fontana, 1993, p.67).
Although it is often considered the colour of
mourning and desolation, in certain circumstances it can
be a colour of sophistication and elegance (Fabri, 1967,
p.65). Many sporting teams have utilised black as a
function of power, strength, confidence and
respectability. (Pavey, 1980, p.158-178). For supporters
around the world, this colour remains one of the most
popular with some individuals purchasing merchandise
purely for fashion purposes without any knowledge or
understanding of the team.
Teams such as the Oakland Raiders (NFL), Juventus
(Italian soccer) and Orlando Magic (NBA) have set a
precedent not only in their sport, but also in fashion
circles. Therefore all emerging teams must consider the
"wearability" of their colours not only on the field,
but also on the streets.
Grey
"Grey is colourless, figuratively as well as
literally." (Fabri, 1967, p.63).
As a shade of black, it lacks distinction and
therefore is rarely used as a primary team colour.
Furthermore, research indicates that it provokes no
strong emotions, remaining quiet and reserved in nature
(Pavey, 1980, p.140).
In such an industry as sport, where teams play on
emotion, grey’s characteristics would be unsuitable.
However, it does possess the ability to stimulate
reflection and imagination, therefore suggesting an aura
of intelligence and wisdom (Pavey, 1980, p.140-178).
White
"White’s reputation is something of a grey area,"
(Pavey, 1980, p.178).
"In the far east it is a colour of mourning,"
(Fontana, 1993, p.67; Fabri, 1967, p.63; Crozier, 1994,
p.153). However, the Tibetans believe white is the
colour of Mount Meru, which is the "mountain at the
centre of the world," and embodies the assent to
enlightenment (Fontana, 1993, p.67).
Research indicates that white is primarily the colour
of purity and is a function of smoothness (Crozier,
1994, p.153; Gage, 1995, p.12; Fabri, 1967, p.63;
Fontana, 1993, p.67). However its use in sport should be
carefully considered as traditionally, a white flag was
a representation of surrender or truth, and to send a
white feather to an enemy branded them cowardice in
nature (Fabri, 1967, p.63; Pavey, 1980, p.178).
Ironically umpires in many leagues wear all white
uniforms with many supporters believing that this colour
is reflective of their role. However all umpires would
disagree with this, and believe the colour is more
reflective of respectability and righteousness (Pavey
1980, p.158; Crozier, 1994, p.153). White tennis attire
has been compulsory at Wimbledon since 1903 in order to
mark the tradition and respect for the tournament.
Although in the 1970’s Jimmy Conners was permitted
stripes of colours on his sleeves, the rule has remained
relatively consistent. (Pavey, 1980, p.178). Tradition
in the sport of cricket and lawn bowls is also reflected
in the colour of white.
White is particularly prevalent within Baseball,
where the image of players with dirt stained white
uniforms is somewhat of an icon in the sport. However
the use of white as a primary colour is quite unusual in
sport, as it lacks high visibility in comparison to the
previous colours mentioned. Sydney Swans (AFL), Stuart
Racing Formula 1 Team, Tottenham Hotspur (English
soccer) and Real Madrid (Spanish soccer) have all
utilised the colour white quite successfully with
merchandise. Traditionally in an Australian context
white has come to symbolise the colour of the visiting
team. In the AFL for instance the "away" team is
required to wear white shorts. This contrasts with the
US experience where the colour white represents the home
team. Members of the National Hockey League and Major
League Baseball wear predominantly white uniforms at
home and coloured uniforms in road games.
Colour in Practice
"I’d Like To See That."
Some consider Australian Rules Football (AFL) a
religion, not a sport. The game has grown in popularity
since its expansion from a Victorian based league (VFL)
to an all Australian sport. The league currently
consists of 10 Victorian based teams and 6 interstate
sides who have all enjoyed varying degrees of success.
With spectator attendance increasing every year, other
Australian sporting leagues have struggled to understand
the passion that the sport induces in its supporters.
Some attribute this to the pace of the game, others
suggest it is the aerial acrobatics of the players.
However the most likely reason is the overall package
that Aussie Rules presents, including its visual
attractiveness.
With the introduction of many interstate teams, the
game has been able to flourish in the area of
merchandise and colours. Such states as Western
Australia and South Australia must seek to differentiate
themselves by selecting team colours that will not only
attract supporters away from the second AFL club in that
state, but also potential supporters around Australia.
As the league was established in Victoria during the
1800’s teams in this state did not recognise the
important impact colours could have on people. North
Melbourne Football Club was established in the 1860’s,
and due to this fact little information exists as to how
their colours of blue and white were selected. The most
probable theory proposed by the club suggests that it’s
founder "Tiger" Gardener and the Gardener family, were
linked with Saint Mary’s Anglican Church in North
Melbourne. The colours associated with Saint Mary’s are
blue and white.
As their colours were most likely selected based on
association rather than stimulation, the club does not
consider them important to the marketability of North
Melbourne Football Club both locally and Australia wide.
Although recognising that they are neither an advantage
nor disadvantage, the club attributes their popularity
to the following factors.
- Marketability of the team mascot - "kangaroo"
- The team’s success in the 1990’s
- The work of the clubs staff in regards to
functions, sponsorship and special events.
North Melbourne 1998 membership was 19,055 and they
expected merchandise sales in the order of $250,000. As
one of Victoria’s most successful on-field clubs, North
Melbourne have chosen to focus their existence on the
symbolism of what they have achieved and represent, as
opposed to the impact of their colours. Ironically, blue
and white are the colours of commitment, victory,
respect and righteousness which is the exact association
the club is seeking to project.
One of the most popular Victorian based AFL clubs is
Essendon. However once again research has failed to
identify the exact source of their red and black
colours. The club itself believes there is a strong link
between Essendon Rowing Club, St Patricks Cathedral and
Xavier College, all of which feature the colours.
Fortunately enough for Essendon Football Club, red and
black are the most powerful and provoking in the colour
spectrum.
A Victorian football club that shares a similar
colour scheme to Essendon, is St Kilda. Although the
club has not been able to identify how their team
colours of red, black and white came to be in existence
they consider them important to the marketability of the
football club. This is due to the fact that they are
strong, visual colours that demand attention from
supporters. The club considers other sports, sponsors
and current trends when deciding on how to merge these
three colours together to best represent St Kilda
Football Club. This has been a successful exercise with
merchandise proving extremely popular and membership
figures for 1998 increasing to a record 21,600.
From information provided by such clubs as North
Melbourne, Essendon and St Kilda, the conclusion may be
drawn that most Victorian based teams do not understand
the potential that their colours possess in helping them
to achieve their desired image. However in their
defence, some of these clubs have been in existence
since the mid-1800s where colours were merely chosen for
their associations with existing institutions. Today’s
emerging AFL clubs have the luxury of manipulating
colours to achieve the desired response that pioneering
clubs never had the opportunity too.
The AFL has standard colours that may be used by
teams via registered PMS colours. These provide the
selected team colours with a coded number that enables
licensees to identify which threads will form a new
team’s guernsey colours via the use of these codes. The
AFL must approve all team colours or changes to these
colours, as they are the licensed holder of all AFL
merchandise rights. Any changes must be made at least
one year before they are to be implemented. However the
AFL does not impose any sanctions on what colours are to
be used by participating teams in the competition. For
example Geelong, Carlton and North Melbourne Football
Club all share varying shades of blue and white.
The Fremantle Dockers developed their team colours
with the dual assistance of an outside organisation
called Advertising Agency 303 and a design company
called Turner Design. The Football Club considers their
team colours very important to the marketability of
their club. They feel it is important that their colours
are both popular and eye catching, as supporters need to
be comfortable when wearing the Dockers colours
otherwise the product will not sell. Therefore the club
conducted an in depth analysis on other sports and
current market trends when developing their team
colours. The reason for such an exercise was the belief
that other sporting teams have "taught" supporters to
wear certain colours. Hence some supporters have become
comfortable with specific colours prior to their
introduction into emerging clubs colour schemes.
Fremantle Football Club broke tradition somewhat and
finalised their team colours across four spectrums
involving purple, red, green, and white. Sporting teams
have historically chosen a two or three colour scheme.
Certain reasons were highly influential on this
decision. The most significant of these was that they
where different to the colours of any other clubs within
the AFL, as they are the first team to use purple and
green in their colour scheme. The club also made this
selection based on what these colours represent to the
Fremantle region. For example red, white and green are
traditionally the colours of the Italian community,
whose presence is strong in the Fremantle area.
Furthermore, red and green typically illustrate their
connection with the Maritime culture. This is further
substantiated with the selection of the team’s name of
the "Dockers." Possibly the most profound factor in
determining Fremantle’s club colours, is the fact that
purple is the current number one selling colour in
American sports and it has a strong association with
religion, which in turn appeals to the Catholic
denomination of the city.
The club did not consider the opinions of sponsors
when developing their team colours as they may change
from year to year, and therefore may not generate
long-term associations within the supporter’s minds. The
Dockers current 1998 membership figure stood at 21,000
and the club attributes such popularity to the following
factors.
- They are a new club.
- New colours within the AFL.
- Strong ethnic colours and local following within
the Fremantle area
- The strong football following and tradition within
Fremantle.
Therefore, it is evident that selection of colours
based on current market trends, other sports and the
demographics of supporters, can be instrumental in how a
new team is received by the public.
Port Adelaide Football Club also utilised a similar
approach to Fremantle when selecting their team colours.
When invited into the league, the AFL sent Port Adelaide
a brief, stating that their new colours were to be
innovative and appealing to youth. It was always the
club’s intention to select colours that would best
represent the tradition of Port Adelaide football while
also recognising its emergence into a new era of sport.
Previous to the club being known as the Port Adelaide
Power, they had enjoyed a highly successful history in
the local football competition as the Port Adelaide
Magpies. However once they had gained successful entry
into the AFL, they were required to alter both their
name and colours. This was due to the fact that a
Victorian based club already existed, known as the
Collingwood Magpies with whom they shared the colours of
black and white.
The club committed to the colours black, white,
silver and teal, following the Dockers lead of using
four colours. Port Adelaide had conducted research into
what colours would appeal most to the youth of
Australia. Based on the experience of numerous American
sporting organisations, teal was selected. This colour
had been successfully marketed in sports
internationally, and was different to any other team
colours in Australia. However most importantly it served
the purpose of possessing a close assimilation to the
ocean, with which Port Adelaide is associated. Black and
white colours were chosen in recognition of the club’s
long history as the magpies, and in an effort to
compensate those supporters who had become attached to
these colours. While silver is a close derivative of
black and white, and therefore was considered an ideal
complement to the other colours.
Memberships for 1998 stood at 11,974 and merchandise
sales were averaging $3,200 per day early in the season.
Port Power attributes their success to very loyal and
parochial supporters, and believe their merchandise is
extremely marketable.
The AFL competition has utilised many colours and
with the introduction of new interstate clubs, such
colours as green, purple, silver and teal, have been
used as a differentiating factor. However with the
possibility of a second team in Sydney and a new team in
Tasmania, the use of different colours could well be the
difference between the initial appeal of the team and
it’s continued popularity.
"Simply The Best"
Australian Rugby League (NRL) has experienced
significant conflict both on and off the field in the
past three years. With the division of the league into
two opposing competitions, many questioned whether the
sport would ever recover in the supporters’ minds.
However, with the return of all participating teams to
one NRL competition, the game is once again beginning to
show promise.
For the league to grow into a possible position
worthy of challenging the AFL’s popularity, they would
need to penetrate markets historically dominated by
Aussie Rules, such as Victoria. With this in mind, 1998
welcomed the introduction of a Rugby League team in
Victoria. Melbourne Storm faced an uphill battle of
attracting attention towards a sport that very few
within the region had followed.
The Melbourne Storm colours were developed in
consultation with a number of leading fashion houses.
Their primary objective was to select colours that would
appear dynamic on the field and fashionable off the
field for supporters. Both Melbourne Storm management
and the fashion houses, made a conscious effort to link
their colours with Victorian’s firstly, and secondly
select colours that would appeal to the larger
Australian market. To achieve this, knowledge of fashion
and trends in society were necessary.
The design team selected purple, navy blue and gold
to represent this new Victorian team. Melbourne Storm
believe their colours are important to the success of
their club in attracting a greater supporter base. As
their colours are different from any other NRL or AFL
team, they act to distinguish the club from surrounding
competitors.
The colours were primarily selected to reflect the
tradition of Victorian football jumpers, in relation to
the "V" design and navy blue base. Melbourne Storm
merchandise has proven extremely successful with sales
greater than any other NRL club in 1988. While some of
this is attributable to the newness of the team, the
range of merchandise available was also very limited due
to manufacturers having little time to produce goods as
a result of the merging of the leagues and uncertainty
at the beginning of the season.
With the combination of purple, signifying authority
and power, blue emulating stability and success, and
finally gold representing immortality, and truth.
Melbourne Storm’s selection of these colours suggests a
strong foundation for future marketability and
presentation of the team.
"Touchdown"
The National Football League (NFL) has enjoyed
explosive success within the United States and all over
the world.
Its popularity in countries like Australia, can be
attributed partly to the extensive hype and
merchandising of the sport, from the United States.
Minimal coverage has not provided the majority of
Australian’s with the opportunity to experience the
spirit of the game, therefore many consider the sport
more fashionable to wear than to consistently follow.
Due to the number of teams participating in the NFL
(thirty-one), more than one club is permitted to have
similar colour schedules. For example the Oakland
Raiders and Pittsburgh Steelers both have black as their
prominent colour. However all team colours and any
changes to those colours must be approved by the NFL.
Team colours are important to the marketability of the
sport locally and in particular globally. The Australian
representative arm the NFL, believes apparel sales are
often driven by fashion. It is not unusual for an
individual in Australia to be inclined to purchase an
Oakland Raiders jacket, merely based on the fact that it
is fashionable to wear or because of the Americana
concept. However the purchaser may have no knowledge of
a single member of the Raiders team. With current
merchandise sales world wide for the NFL in the vicinity
of $3.5 billion dollars, it becomes obvious that the
game’s success has more to do with image than just pure
sport.
One of the most popular teams within the NFL are the
Dallas Cowboys. This team has enjoyed significant
success on-field and produced many marketable players.
On a global scale, the Cowboys are one of five teams
that rate highly in merchandise sales and popularity..
These are the Dallas Cowboys, Oakland Raiders, San
Francisco 49ers, Miami Dolphins and the Green Bay
Packers. All of these teams have experienced varying
degrees of success in recent years, but most
interestingly possess some of the most attractive
colours in the league.
As discussed, the blue and silver Dallas Cowboys
embody commitment and righteousness, while the green and
yellow Green Bay Packers represent stability and
inspiration. However the most popular selling
merchandise in NFL history belongs to the Oakland
Raiders who are black, white and silver. For many
supporters of sport, the use of black is favourable when
purchasing merchandise. Representing power, it is the
ultimate in wearability and symbolism in sport. Like
black, red is also popular for consumers of merchandise.
Being the primary colour of the San Francisco 49ers, it
represents ideals that are crucial to sport, such as
confidence, adrenalin, heroism, passion and rage. Thus,
it is not difficult to see why sporting fans are
attracted to this colour. Teal, the dominate colour of
the Miami Dolphins, is also visually attractive. When
combined with white and orange, they produce a
refreshing cool effect, that is particularly appealing
to women.
"Here We Go, Here We Go, Here We Go"
English Football is arguably the most colourful of
all European Soccer Leagues. Die hard fans, who would
quite possibly sell their mothers for an FA Cup ticket
are plentiful. The Premier League has taken the sport to
a level of glamour and status unseen in most leagues
around the world. With many clubs now listed on the
stock exchange, English Football’s fanatical appeal has
spread beyond its boundaries to countries, like
Australia, where supporter groups have been established.
The most successful team both on and off the field,
remains Manchester United. The club’s popularity is a
characteristic envied by all sporting teams around the
world. Some attribute this success to the style and
panache with which they play, while others suggest that
their fan base extends from the sentiments of the Munich
air disaster. However most believe it is the stars that
play for the club, like David Beckham. Whatever the
reason, such popularity has lead to intense demand for
Manchester United merchandise and generates a near
frenzy when a new club uniform is released.
The club has experienced a long and traditionally
conservative history in relation to the first choice of
colours utilised by the team. There is however, a great
deal of scope to incorporate a variety of colours for
use in the club’s second and third choice guernsey’s,
called kits.
Umbro International are contracted to manufacture
these kits when required. Both Manchester United and
Umbro provide input as to the direction of colours,
however final approval is granted by management at the
club.
In the past, the league had placed regulations on
manufacturers and team with respect to not being able to
use navy blue and black as base shades. The reason being
that these kits would clash with those of the referees.
To overcome this Umbro developed colorful referee kits
that opened the door for teams wishing to use the darker
(and popular) base shades.
Team colours are largely selected with respect to
tradition. Therefore a number of clubs are permitted to
utilise the same base colours. For example, red and
white are employed by Manchester United, Arsenal,
Sunderland, Southampton, Liverpool and others. However
colours selected for second and third choice kits may
encompass a vast array of colours, all of which are
primarily market driven and dependent upon a particular
season.
Within the six years Umbro has been manufacturing
Manchester United kits, approximately thirteen designs
have been produced. Umbro considers themselves a part of
the fashion industry, and therefore utilise a fashion
process of thought. This means that designs only have a
two year life cycle. Consumers have now become
accustomed to this time frame and invariably, the
excitement that leads up to the launch of a new kit is
overwhelming. Excluding the current home kit, the most
successful team uniform for Manchester United remains
the all black design introduced in season 1993/94.
Such a result, verifies the notion that sporting
consumers are attracted to the colour black.
"Slam Dunk"
The National Basketball League in Australia has often
played second fiddle to other sports, like the AFL. In
an effort to overcome this fact, managers of the league
decided to alter the commencing date of the season, to
coincide with the summer period.
As part of the season shift process, the NBL and
participating clubs undertook an extensive analysis on
their logos and colours. New images were released as
part of the introduction to the 1998/99 season and the
development of this new visual identity package involved
Australian and International design specialists.
With increased media coverage expected, the NBL made
a significant effort to focus their efforts on the
co-ordination of club colours in logos and uniforms. The
NBL considers colours very important to the marketing
mix of basketball. The main reason for this is that they
depict visually the level of vibrancy in the sport, and
hence are influential in the level of appeal the sport
portrays to consumers. Even without the change to a
summer season, the NBL stated that they still would have
undertaken a visual identity project, as it is their
belief that the league’s logos and colours were not at a
level comparable to those of competitors in the
entertainment and merchandising areas.
The league approves all team colours and any changes
made to those colours. The colours adopted by each team
must be different in order to provide a point of visual
differentiation, and according to NBL rules, each team
is required to have a dark colour based home uniform and
a light colour based away uniform.
The following three areas are considered when
developing team colours. Firstly, representation of the
geographical area. For example, the Adelaide 36ers
utilise the colours red, blue and yellow to represent
South Australia, while Townsville also adopt colours
which are representative of the topography of their
region. Secondly, merchandising potential, and thirdly,
tradition. Sponsors also require careful consideration.
However, it is important that team colours are developed
as independently as possible, as sponsors change.
For the NBL, no simple answer to the question of what
the most effective colour is, exists. Personality and
performance of the team will have an effect, as will the
combination of colours selected.
"And We Are Go"
Formula One Motor Racing is a sport that encompasses
all the qualities most desired by sporting fans. Speed,
danger, noise, personalities and glamour are just some
of these elements that continue to draw spectators to
each race held in some of the most beautiful countries
across the world.
This sport is like no other in developing team
colours where sponsors become the determining factor.
The formula One administration also does not impose any
sanctions on the amount of times a colour can be used by
a number of participating teams. For this reason, it is
not unusual to see various teams with the same colour
scheme. For example, both Williams and Ferrari utilise
the colour red as a primary base.
With many countries banning tobacco sponsorship of
Formula One races, the colour can act as a mechanism for
identification purposes. Without such names as Winfield
or Marlboro displayed on the cars, fans can still
identify each team via use of their colours. This is
particularly relevant with the high speeds involved in
the sport.
The most popular Formula One racing team globally,
continues to be Ferrari, and Mr. Bernie Ecclestone,
Chairman of the FI Administration believes the best, and
most effective colour in the sport is red. This is quite
possibly due to the fact that this colour captures the
essence of racing including heroism, power, courage,
adrenaline, confidence and passion.
Influences On Colour.
When selecting colours that will best represent a
sporting club, what the desired colour means is equally
as important as what they symbolise to an individual or
city. However, to achieve the maximum effect from
colours, teams must consider the atmosphere in which
these colours will appear. Research suggests that
conditions in which the sport is played will influence
how supporters perceive the colours used. Therefore by
analysing the entire situation in practice, as opposed
to merely in theory, a club can avoid manipulation of
their initial objectives.
How many times has it been stated "that a piece of
clothing looks different under this light." Retailers
for many years have manipulated the lighting within
their outlets to make consumers appear thinner or more
presentable, all in an effort to achieve their objective
-sales. Therefore, why is sport any different? A team
guernsey that looks greyish green under natural light,
can appear bluish green in other lights. (Pavey, 1980,
p.132). Therefore, team management must consider under
what type of light the colours will be worn.
Many sporting organisations own their own stadiums
where they have control over such factors as the
brightness of light or greenness of the field. Kurt
Goldstein, performed an experiment to determine the
effect of coloured lights on the perception of objects.
He concluded that red light overestimates objects by
making them appear larger and heavier (Pavey, 1980,
p.44). This could be advantageous for teams wishing to
intimidate the opposition with their size, particularly
on a Basketball court, or a Football field. It was also
discovered that green or blue lights make objects seem
smaller and lighter (Pavey, 1980, p.44). Hence, clubs
should ensure that the fixtures within their stadiums
are not reflected with these colours
Sporting teams must also consider the ages of their
supporters, when determining the composition of their
colours. As seen, colours possess numerous meanings for
all types of people. Therefore, certain colours are
preferred by specific age groups. Some theorists believe
that colour preference can be traced back to childhood
associations (Pavey, 1980, p.138).
An experiment conducted by Luscher, attempted to
determine whether colours have emotional value and
create a lasting identity for certain individuals. Based
on his research, it was discovered that cool colours
appeal to women, primary and earth colours appeal to
children, primary and bright colours appeal to poor
people, pastel colours appeal to sophisticated people,
and dark colours appeal to men or older people. (Pavey,
1980, p.171). Therefore, if teams choose to consider
such studies when selecting their colours, they may find
that they are more successful when appealing to the
largest age group in the surrounding area or supporter
base.
The publics direct association with a colour, must
also be discussed. If it is a team’s intention to use a
colour to represent an element that is important to the
geographical history of that city, they may find that
the public has an opposing association with that colour.
Hence, all symbolic meaning is lost. Numerous studies
exist that have all tested for this factor. An
experiment of fifteen observers in isolation, were shown
a series of sixteen colours in succession. When asked to
state the first word or idea that came to them, the
following responses were received (Murray, 1952, p.298):
Pale Blue Sky
Green Leaves/Sea
Black Death/Funeral
Scarlet Fire
White Snow/Cold
A subsequent study offered nursery school students a
choice of yellow or brown crayons with which they were
to depict happiness and sadness. In most cases, yellow
was used to depict happiness, and brown was used for
sadness. (Pavey, 1980, p.44).
Therefore, it is not suggested that teams let such
studies rule their decision of colours, but merely
consider and understand the fact that if research
overwhelmingly depicts that society associates a
particular colour with a specific emotion or object,
attempting to project any other meaning may be
unsuccessful. Such factors discussed, all have an impact
on the way colours are perceived and used. Therefore, if
teams broaden their focus to include an investigation
into these areas, the results they receive can only
improve.
The Right Combination
"The only way to make a colour more intense, without
adding another colour, is to place a complimentary
nearby." (Fabri, 1967, p.27).
Colours should be selected according to their effects
on an individual’s mind and on each other (Pavey, 1980,
p.139). What allows a colour to produce an emotional
response, is often the colour next to it. Many sports
teams have failed to recognise the fact that colours
placed together can be far more powerful than a colour
alone, as they act to intensify each other by appearing
to change.
There are specific combinations of colours that when
used, produce the best results in terms of appeal and
meaning. Therefore, those teams seeking to change their
colours, or new emerging clubs should consider these
combinations. Complimentary colours indicate that when
certain colours are placed together, they act to
intensify each other. Blue and orange, yellow, and
violet, and red and green all perform in this manner
(Fabri, 1967, p.27). These colours appear adequate by
themselves. However, when employed together, they
produce a striking effect.
Red and blue are also colours that flicker together
when seen (Pavey, 1980, p.143). Ironically, when the
colour blue is added to another colour, it acts to cool
the effect portrayed. Alternatively, red warms colours
(Pavey, 1980, p139). Therefore, when warm and cool
combine forces, an eye-catching combination is achieved.
The right colour combination can also create an
alternative connotation that was not attached to these
colours when depicted by themselves. Red and white, the
colours of Sydney Swans, signify immortality. This is
due to the fact that the shedding of blood leads to a
pallor of death (Fontana, 1993, p.52). Red and gold
together, represent rank and nobility (Pavey, 1980,
p.186), while red and yellow indicate a desire for
experience and expansion (Pavey, 1980, p.178).
The colour black is often used by sports teams and
positively received by supporters in most circumstances.
However, when utilised with various colours, its meaning
is contrasting. Black and white, the colours of
Collingwood Football Club, signifies the ultimate truth
that an individual can possess (Pavey, 1980, p.178). As
discussed, the Oakland Raiders are amongst the highest
global merchandise sellers of the NFL. Their colour of
black, white and silver are symbols of taste and luxury
combined (Pavey, 1980, p.178). Similarly black and gold
also represent luxury and glamour (Pavey, 1980,
pp.171-174).
Arguably the most widely used compliment to black, is
red. Chicago Bulls (NBA) and Essendon Football Club
(AFL) both use these colour to represent their club.
Ironically it’s meaning of suppressed excitement which
threatens to discharge itself in aggressive impulses, is
quite an accurate description of their styles of play
(Pavey, 1980, p.171). Luscher, however, believes the
three best colours to use in combination with others,
for a new team, are blue, green and red. If blue and
green are combined, they represent self esteem, a
quality all strong sporting clubs possess (Pavey, 1980,
p.172). Red placed with other colours, signifies a
desire to conquer and the expectancy of something new
(Pavey, 1980, p.172).
Thus, the impact of colours on one another is an
issue that needs to be investigated when making a
selection. Alone, colours have the capacity to symbolise
meaning, together they have the power to enhance, dull,
warm, cool and produce alternative meanings. For this
reason, selection of a team’s colours should not only be
based on the impact they are expected to have on an
individual, but also their effect on each other.
Conclusion
Colours in sport have the power to propel a team’s
image through boundaries previously thought impenetrable
. Today’s society has eroded the barriers between art,
music, theatre, and fashion. Sport has now followed.
Consumers no longer only purchase sporting apparel as a
sign of support for their respective teams. A larger
consideration occurs, with street wearability and image
evolving as prominent decision making factors.
What attracts consumers to this merchandise, often
includes factors beyond a team’s on-field success. Their
associations with the colour, how the colour appears
under certain conditions, and how the colours work
together to create an impression, are primary reasons.
Therefore, clubs must consider the bigger picture when
selecting colours that will best represent them. Colours
that appear visually attractive in a boardroom, may
change in the background of a football stadium or
basketball court.
Clubs must also investigate the meaning of their
colours. As with many teams, it may surprise them to
know that the image and ideals they strive to project,
are the exact same elements their colours exude. Such
information can only ensure a club maximises their
resources to their fullest potential.
Gone are the days where sports clubs revolved merely
around sports. Today’s language involves business
terminology, like product, price, promotion, and
positioning. Such an approach has given rise to sports
teams working in conjunction with fashion houses to
access the best possible information on market trends.
However, satisfying what the market demands, is not
enough. Clubs must lead by example by creating trends
and forcing their consumer to play catch up. The only
way to achieve this is to broaden their knowledge on the
issue of colours, then use this to manipulate supporters
and potential supporters into believing their team is
the most appealing within the competition.
The use of colours in sport into the millennium will
increase in importance. In the past, colours were merely
seen as symbolic. Today they are seen as not only
symbolic, but also psychological. In the future, colours
will have exhaustive powers and may be used to directly
manipulate the mind (Murray, 1952, p.293). The sooner
sports organisations recognise and understand the
potential of colour, the more creative they may become
in addressing the needs of consumers.
References
Assael, H., (1981) Consumer Behaviour And Marketing
Action, PWS Kent Publishing, California.
Brusatin, M., (1991) A History Of Colors, Shambhala,
Boston.
Bustanoby, J.H., (1947) Principles Of Color And Color
Mixing, McGraw- Hill, Book Company, New York.
Crozier, R., (1994) Manufactured Pleasures,
Psychological Responses To Design, Manchester Uni Press,
New York.
Fabri, R., (1967) Colour - A Complete Guide For
Artists, Watson - Guptill Publications, New York.
Fontana, D., (1993) The Secret Language Of Symbols,
Duncan Baird Publishers, Great Britain.
Gage, J., (1995) Colour And Culture - Practice And
Meaning From Antiquity To Abstraction, Thomas And
Hudson, Singapore.
Headley, D., (1982) Living With Colour , Macmillan
Press, London.
Kuppers, H., (1972) Color - Origin, Systems, Uses,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, London.
Murray, H.D., (1952) Colour In Theory And Practice,
Chapman And Hall, London.
Pavey, D., (1980) Color, The Knapp Press, Los
Angeles.
Sloane, P., (1991) Primary Sources - Selected
Writings On Color , Design Press, London.
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